How Do We Learn a Second Language?
Willy A Renandya, 20 July 2025
Learning a second or foreign language rarely happens overnight. It is a gradual process made up of several steps that often repeat and overlap. By understanding these steps, teachers can design better lessons, and learners can see why both classroom activities and independent, out-of-class practice matter.
Below, I explore seven key processes in second language acquisition, with realistic examples. We also look at how formal classroom learning can help make each stage more effective.
1. Input
Language learning always starts with input, i.e., what learners hear or read in the target language. Input gives learners the ‘raw material’ they need to build understanding.
For example, Mei, a student learning English, likes watching short cooking videos and reading simple recipes. Even though she doesn’t understand every word, she starts to recognize common expressions like ‘mix well,’ ‘add the salt,’ and ‘bake for 20 minutes.’
In the classroom, teachers can choose level-appropriate and interesting materials (like stories, dialogues, and videos) so learners get rich, understandable input.
2. Intake
Not everything learners hear or read becomes part of their mental language system. The part of the input that learners notice and remember is called intake. This usually happens when something feels meaningful or connects to what they already know.
For example, while watching a video, Mei notices the phrase ‘chop the onions.’ Because she just learned the word ‘onions’ in class, this phrase feels familiar and sticks in her memory.
In the classroom, teachers can highlight useful phrases, encourage students to underline or repeat key words, and design tasks that help learners focus on important language.
3. Noticing
For language to move from passive recognition to active use, learners often need to notice specific words, patterns, or grammar points. This noticing helps them become aware of how the language actually works.
Mei for example may notice the speaker say ‘the onions,’ not just ‘onions.’ She wonders why ‘the’ is added. If she doesn’t know, the teachers can use activities like comparing sentences, gap-fills, or short discussions to help students why ‘the’ is used in some but not other sentences.
4. Restructuring / Reorganizing
As learners notice new language features, they update and refine their internal ‘language system.’ This process helps them gradually strengthen their knowledge of the target language.
For example, Mei often said ‘cut onions.’ After noticing people say ‘cut the onions,’ she starts to use ‘the’ in similar contexts. Over time, her English sounds more natural.
In the classroom, teachers can explain grammar rules, give corrective feedback, and provide guided practice so learners can apply what they’ve noticed.
5. Trialling and Early Production
This stage is when learners try out the language they’ve learned, even if it’s just in short or simple sentences. Early production is often hesitant, with frequent mistakes. But it is a valuable step toward real communication.
In her cooking club, Mei tries saying, ‘First, we chop the onions.’ Even if she hesitates, she’s using what she learned in a real situation.
In the classroom, student-centred activities such as pair work, short dialogues, and role plays give learners a safe space to practise new words and patterns.
Outside the classroom, Mei can softly rehearse cooking instructions to herself. This kind of self-talk is helpful, as it builds confidence and prepares her for future language use.
6. Fluency Development
With repeated practice, learners start to speak or write more smoothly, with fewer pauses and less conscious thinking. This is fluency development.
After a few weeks of intensive practice, Mei can give simple cooking instructions like ‘stir the soup’ or ‘boil the water’ quickly and effortlessly.
In the classroom, activities such as 3-2-1 speaking activities, repeated storytelling, and games help learners move toward faster, more automatic language use.
7. Output
Finally, learners produce language to share real ideas and communicate with others. Speaking and writing help consolidate knowledge and highlight what still needs improvement.
For example, Mei can write a simple recipe in English and post it online. When someone asks a question, she replies in English using the phrases she has practised.
To further support May’s output practice, tasks such as presentations, writing assignments, or group discussions can be used to encourage learners to use the language meaningfully.
Conclusion
These seven processes, i.e., input, intake, noticing, restructuring, trialling and early production, fluency development, and output often overlap and repeat. For example, trying to speak can help learners notice what they don’t know yet, leading them to seek more input and to further restructure their internal linguistic system.
It is important that teachers understand these steps so that they can design lessons that guide learners naturally through the stages of language acquisition. This way learners can see that progress comes from a mix of exposure, practice, noticing, and real communication—not from memorizing lists alone or doing mindless grammar or vocabulary exercises